Upper-Intermediate Grammar

Upper-Intermediate · Grammar Reference

Unit 8 — Relative Clauses and Participles

defining vs non-defining · relative pronouns · participles

8.1 Introduction to relative clauses

It is important to understand the difference between two kinds of relative clauses.

1 — Defining relative (DR) clauses

Defining relative (DR) clauses qualify a noun, and tell us exactly which person or thing is being referred to.

She likes people who tell lies are odious.A corkscrew is a thing you use to open a bottle of wine.

2 — Non-defining relative (NDR) clauses

Non-defining relative (NDR) clauses add secondary information to a sentence, almost as an afterthought.

My friend Andrew, who is Scottish, plays the bagpipes.Politicians, who tell lies, are odious.

DR clauses are much more common in spoken language, and NDR clauses are more common in written language. In spoken language, we tend to avoid NDR clauses.

Defining relative clauses — Relative pronoun left out

We can leave out the relative pronoun if it is the object of the relative clause: Did you like the present ( ) I gave you? Who was that man ( ) you were talking to?
We cannot leave out the pronoun if it is the subject of the clause: I met a man who works in advertising.

	Person	Thing
Subject	who (that)	that (which)
Object	( ) (that)	( ) (that)

📌 Note

That is preferred to which after superlatives, and words such as all, everything, something, anything, and only: That's the funniest film that was ever made. All he has is a few slices of ham.
Prepositions usually come at the end of the relative clause.

Non-defining relative clauses

Relative pronouns cannot be left out of NDR clauses.
Look at the possible pronouns for people and things. Whom is possible, but not as common — it is very formal.

which

Which can be used in NDR clauses to refer to the whole of the previous sentence or idea.

She arrived on time, which amazed everybody.

whose

Whose can be used in both DR and NDR clauses.

That's the woman whose son was killed. My grandad, whose eyesight is terrible, still drives.

what

What is used in DR clauses to mean 'the thing that'.

Has she told you what's worrying her? What I need to know is where we're meeting.

why, when, where

Why can be used in DR clauses to mean the reason why: I don't know why we're arguing.
When and where can be used in both DR and NDR clauses: Tell me when you expect to arrive. The hotel where we stayed was excellent.

8.2 Participles

When present participles (-ing) are used like adjectives or adverbs, they are active in meaning: Modern art is interesting. Pour boiling water onto the pasta.
When past participles (usually -ed) are used like adjectives or adverbs, they are passive in meaning: I'm interested in modern art. Look at that broken doll.
Participles after a noun define and identify in the same way as relative clauses: I met a woman riding a donkey. (= who was riding)
Participles can be used as adverbs describing two actions at the same time, or two actions that happen one after another.
If it is important to show that the first action is completed before the second action begins, we use the perfect participle: Having finished lunch, we set off on our journey.
Many verbs are followed by -ing forms: I spent the holiday reading. Don't waste time thinking about the past. He keeps on asking me to go out with him.