These can also express the result of something.
He worked hard all his life. As a result, he amassed a fortune.Therefore/Consequently/As a consequence, Japanese goods are more expensive for Americans. (more formal)Thus is even more formal than therefore and is used in formal writing, often to draw a conclusion resulting from certain facts and evidence.
As and since are used when the reason is already known to the listener/reader, or when it is not the most important part of the sentence. Both these clauses are quite formal.
Because puts more emphasis on the reason, and most often introduces new information. When the reason is the most important part of the sentence, the because clause usually comes at the end.
For introduces new information, but suggests that the reason is given as an afterthought. A for clause could almost be in brackets.
These can also express the cause of something, followed by a noun phrase.
Seeing as is an informal way of giving a reason for doing something, often used in spoken English.
The infinitive on its own is the most common pattern in informal English for expressing purpose. In order to is a longer form of the infinitive of purpose, and so as to is a more formal version.
I went to Spain to learn / in order to learn / so as to learn Spanish.We cannot use the infinitive alone in the negative: not to / so as not to / in order not to — wake anyone up.
We can use so (that) + can/could or will/would to express purpose. That is often dropped in more informal contexts, in which case there is no comma before the so.
Summer Time was introduced so that people could take advantage of the long summer evenings.Also, and, and and are the most simple and common ways of adding a further point. Contrary to widespread belief, it is perfectly good style to begin a sentence with And.
Furthermore and in addition to are more formal equivalents of what's more, and as well as.
Furthermore, it can run on a variety of networks.What's more, it's one of the cheapest sports you can do.Too can also be used at the end of a sentence, but too is more common in this position.
But is the most common way of expressing contrast. Even though is more emphatic than although. Though is more formal than although.
Although there weren't any trains, I was only an hour late.The journey back home was all right, though it wasn't easy.All the same and even so express contrast informally, while however, nevertheless, and yet are more formal.
In spite of and despite can also express contrast.
Despite the rain. In spite of the rain. Despite being over 80, my grandmother enjoyed the party.While (or Whilst) is commonly used to make a contrast. While can be used for contrasting statements about the same subject, or different ones. But whereas always involves a contrast between two different subjects.
The following linkers are conjunctions of time:
| Linker | Use / Example |
|---|---|
| when | When I saw the time, I realized I was late. |
| as soon as | As soon as I got up, I had a shower. |
| after | After I had a shower, I got dressed. |
| as / while / whilst | As/While I was getting dressed, I thought about the day to come. |
| before | Before I went to work, I read the mail. |
| once | Once I'd fed the cat, I left the house. |
| until / till | I worked until I had finished my report. |
| since | I've been working on this project since I joined the company. |
| as soon as / the moment | Emphasize the immediacy of one event following another. |
| by the time | By the time we'd arrived, night had fallen. |
| meanwhile | Similar to while, but introduces a new sentence. |
| in the end | Describes a final outcome different from the one intended. |
The following linkers are used to express a condition.
| Linker(s) | Use |
|---|---|
| if | Standard condition |
| Providing / Provided / As long as / So long as | you look after it, you can stay in my flat. |
| Even if | I'm there, I don't mind. (condition even if extreme) |
| Whether or not | it would be nice to see you soon. |
| No matter how/what/when | late it is, just phone me. |
| Supposing | you ever ran out of cash, I could help. |
| in case | I'll do X in case Y happens. (precaution — X happens first) |
| in case of | a formal construction meaning the same as if — usually in notices and regulations. |